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    • br Conclusions In conclusion the present study supports dual

    2018-11-13


    Conclusions In conclusion, the present study supports dual systems models (Shulman et al., 2016; Somerville and Casey, 2010; Steinberg, 2005) and the triadic model of adolescent motivated behavior (Ernst, 2014; Ernst et al., 2006). Both the dlPFC and the amygdala showed age-dependent effects of cognition emotion interactions. Whereas in the right dlPFC emotion expression was modulated by cognitive load, in the amygdala it was modulated by task valence. However, support for the avoidance-related aspect of the triadic model was not found. Moreover, adolescents had more activation in the ventral striatum to happy faces relative to adults. The data also suggest that further enquiry regarding task relevance and cognitive load is needed and may contribute to our understanding of the complex relationship between myeloperoxidase regions and behavioral patterns during development (Pfeifer and Allen, 2012). Such differences in prefrontal and amygdala functioning may be relevant to adolescent risk-taking and emotional instability.
    Introduction Growing up in a lower socioeconomic status (SES) household is associated with a wide range of negative outcomes across the lifespan, including poorer cognition, physical, and mental health, as well as lower levels of academic and occupational attainment (for reviews, see Hackman et al., 2010; McEwen and Gianaros, 2010; Ursache and Noble, 2016). Efforts to ameliorate these disparities can be informed by understanding the mechanisms underlying the relationships between childhood SES and life outcomes, and the development of these mechanisms in contexts of early adversity. While neuroscientific investigations of SES-related disparities are increasing, most focus on a single time point in development or are cross-sectional. Here we examine the developmental trajectory of neural processes for selective attention in children from lower SES backgrounds during early childhood. We focus on attention as it is one of the neurocognitive mechanisms most vulnerable to early adversity (e.g., Blair and Raver, 2012). Importantly, attention networks have been implicated in a range of cognitive skills foundational for academic success (Checa and Rueda, 2011; McClelland et al., 2013; Posner et al., 2006; Rhoades et al., 2011; Stevens and Bavelier, 2012; Stipek and Valentino, 2015) and, because they also serve important regulatory functions in the stress response, are the focus of theoretical frameworks linking early adversity to adult outcomes (e.g., Blair and Raver, 2012; McEwen and Gianaros, 2010; Pakulak et al., in press). Several studies have documented differences in aspects of attention between children from lower and higher SES backgrounds (e.g., Blair and Raver, 2012; Weinberg et al., 2012; D’Angiulli et al., 2008; Hackman and Farah, 2009; Kishiyama et al., 2009; Mezzacappa, 2004; Stevens et al., 2009). However, relatively little work has focused on the vulnerability of attention to effects of early adversity during early childhood, between the ages of 3 and 5 years, a time when attention systems are rapidly developing (e.g., Davidson et al., 2006; Gomes et al., 2000; Jones et al., 2015; Posner et al., 2014; Rothbart et al., 2011; Rueda et al., 2004). The goal of the present longitudinal study was to evaluate the development of neural processes for selective attention, previously shown to be vulnerable in children from lower SES backgrounds (e.g., D’Angiulli et al., 2008; Farah et al., 2006; Kishiyama et al., 2009; Mezzacappa, 2004; Neville et al., 2013; Noble et al., 2007; Stevens et al., 2009), across the critical preschool-age developmental time period. Selective attention, the ability to focus on a relevant stimulus in the presence of distracting, competing information, has been proposed to be a foundational skill for learning and educational achievement (e.g., Astheimer and Sanders, 2012; Astheimer et al., 2014; Piazza and Dehaene, 2004; Stevens and Bavelier, 2012). Additionally, aspects of selective attention serve as the foundation on which self-regulation and executive control systems develop (e.g., Posner et al., 2014; Rothbart et al., 2011). While fine-tuning of attentional control continues into adolescence (Gomes et al., 2000; Karns et al., 2015; Rueda et al., 2004), the preschool-age period is particularly important developmentally, as skills of self-regulation and language are also undergoing significant growth (e.g., Miller and Chapman, 1981; Rice et al., 2010; Rothbart et al., 2006; Rueda et al., 2005; Zelazo et al., 2013).